10.2305 IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T22697817A132605004.en

The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species™
ISSN 2307-8235 (online)
IUCN 2008: T22697817A132605004
Scope: Global
Language: English
Spheniscus humboldti, Humboldt Penguin
Assessment by: BirdLife International
View on www.iucnredlist.org
Citation: BirdLife International. 2018. Spheniscus humboldti. The IUCN Red List of Threatened
Species 2018: e.T22697817A132605004. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.20182.RLTS.T22697817A132605004.en
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THE IUCN RED LIST OF THREATENED SPECIES™
Taxonomy
Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Animalia
Chordata
Aves
Sphenisciformes
Spheniscidae
Taxon Name: Spheniscus humboldti Meyen, 1834
Common Name(s):
• English:
• Spanish:
Humboldt Penguin, Peruvian Penguin
Pingüino de Humboldt
Taxonomic Source(s):
SACC. 2005 and updates. A classification of the bird species of South America. Available at:
#http://www.museum.lsu.edu/~Remsen/SACCBaseline.htm#.
Identification Information:
65 cm. Medium-sized, black-and-white penguin. Black head with white border extending from eye
around ear-coverts and chin, and joining on throat. Blackish-grey upperparts. Whitish underparts with
black breast-band extending down flanks to thigh. Fleshy-pink base to bill. Juvenile has wholly dark head
(greyer on sides and chin) and lacks breast-band. Similar spp. Magellanic Penguin S. magellanicus has
broader white stripe on head and has more than one breast-band.
Assessment Information
Red List Category & Criteria:
Vulnerable A2bcde+3bcde+4bcde ver 3.1
Year Published:
2018
Date Assessed:
August 9, 2018
Justification:
This species has undergone extreme population size fluctuations at major colonies in Chile, but there
are considerable uncertainties in the population size and trend. Observed declines in Peruvian colonies
and an overall reduction in the number of breeding colonies indicate that there is probably an ongoing,
underlying rapid decline in numbers. The species consequently qualifies as Vulnerable. However, if the
Chilean population, which comprises the majority of the global population, is found to be stable, the
species will warrant downlisting in the future.
Previously Published Red List Assessments
2017 – Vulnerable (VU)
http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-1.RLTS.T22697817A111228184.en
2016 – Vulnerable (VU)
http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22697817A93641822.en
2013 – Vulnerable (VU)
© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Spheniscus humboldti – published in 2018.
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http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-2.RLTS.T22697817A50410743.en
2012 – Vulnerable (VU)
2010 – Vulnerable (VU)
2008 – Vulnerable (VU)
2005 – Vulnerable (VU)
2004 – Vulnerable (VU)
2000 – Vulnerable (VU)
1994 – Lower Risk/near threatened (LR/nt)
1988 – Threatened (T)
Geographic Range
Range Description:
Spheniscus humboldti occurs along the coastal zone from Isla Foca (5° 12´S) in Peru down to Isla Guafo
(43° 32´S) in southern Chile. At least 49 breeding sites have been confirmed between Punta Aguja (5°
47´S) and Isla Metalqui (42° 12´S) in Peru and Chile, respectively (Ayala et al. 2004, Reyes-Arriagada et
al. 2009). The global population is estimated at nearly 32,000 mature individuals with key colonies at
Punta San Juan (3,160) and Isla Santa Rosa (3,490) in Peru, and Pan de Azúcar (1,600), Chañaral
(14,000), Choros (1,860), Tilgo (2,640), and Pajaros Island (1,200) in Chile. A vagrant individual was
recorded in Alaska, although it likely was transported by boat (Van Buren and Boersma 2007).
Historically, the population suffered a severe decline starting in the mid-1800s due to the extensive
guano harvest in Peru and northern Chile, which removed the preferred nesting habitat (Murphy 1936).
According to Johnson (1965), the Humboldt Penguin occurred by the “hundreds of thousands” before
the guano exploitation started. In the early 1980s, just prior to the 1982-83 El Niño event, the global
population was estimated at 16,000-20,000 birds (Hays 1986, Araya and Todd 1988). After this El Niño
event, numbers dropped to 5,000-6,000 individuals, but it is uncertain whether this reduction actually
represented mortality or dispersal or a combination of both (Hays 1986, Araya and Todd 1988).
Evidence from satellite-tracked individuals suggests that part of the population migrate between 6001,000 km northwards during the winter. This has been observed from colonies in northern Chile (Culik
and Luna-Jorquera 1997a) and southern Chile (Pütz et al. 2016). Based on band recoveries, Wallace et
al. (1999) showed dispersal of penguins from a colony in central Chile up to 600 km to the south and 80
km to the north. Recent geolocation sensor data for Peru indicates post moult movements from
breeding individuals at Punta San Juan (15° 22'S) southward up to the Magellan Region (49° 51'S) in
Chile (Paredes et al. unpubl. data).
Country Occurrence:
Native: Chile; Peru
Vagrant: Colombia; Ecuador; United States (Alaska)
© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Spheniscus humboldti – published in 2018.
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Distribution Map
Spheniscus humboldti
© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Spheniscus humboldti – published in 2018.
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Population
Counts of moulting birds including mature and immature individuals suggest an average population of
c.33,400 ± 2,400 individuals for Chile (Wallace and Araya 2015) and c.10,900 ± 6,900 individuals for Peru
(P. McGill pers. comm.). This roughly equates to a global population of 32,000 mature individuals.
Trend Justification
A current analysis of the population trend reveals high uncertainty in the quality of population numbers
taken in the past three generations, with important deficiencies in the coverage of breeding sites and in
the methodology employed to count penguins within and between Peru and Chile (Simeone and
Cárdenas unpubl.). Most breeding colonies in Peru declined in numbers between 1980 and 2008 (Vianna
et al. 2014). In contrast, some colonies in northern Chile showed a positive trend over the same time
period; however, the significant population increase in the largest breeding colony at Chañaral Island
was attributed to a considerable underestimation of penguin numbers in the past, and thus likely does
not represent a real increase in numbers (Mattern et al. 2004, Vianna et al. 2014). Colonies in central
Chile showed a stable or negative trend. As a consequence, interpreting the current trend of the global
population is problematic and further research is needed. However, considering the lack of evidence for
an overall stability or increase in numbers, the current population trend is precautionarily retained as
declining.
Current Population Trend: Decreasing
Habitat and Ecology (see Appendix for additional information)
Breeding sites It nests on islands and rocky coastal stretches, using a variety of nest types including
guano and dirt burrows, surface nests, vegetation- and rock-covered scrapes, rock crevices, sea caves
and under rocks at breakwater walls (Battistini and Paredes 1999, Simeone and Bernal 2000, Paredes
and Zavalaga 2001). It apparently prefers to breed on slopes at high elevation sites where guano
deposits are available for burrow excavation (Paredes and Zavalaga 2001).
Reproductive behaviour Breeding occurs year-round, but has two peaks, in autumn-winter (April
through July) and in spring (August through December), with latitudinal shifts in dates between Peru
and Chile (Paredes et al. 2002, Simeone et al. 2002, de la Puente et al. 2013).
Moult Birds moult mainly during January and February, but moult in juveniles is less synchronous
(Simeone et al. 2002, Paredes et al. 2003, de la Puente et al. 2013).
Migratory range It is uncertain whether this is a migratory species, but a part of the population migrate
after moult (March), with birds from Pan de Azúcar migrating over 600 km (Culik and Luna-Jorquera
1997b) and birds from Puñihuil over 1,000 km (Pütz et al. 2016) northwards from their colonies.
© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Spheniscus humboldti – published in 2018.
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Diet Depending on locality, it feeds on a variety of fish species including Peruvian Anchovy (Engraulis
ringens), Araucanian Herring (Strangomera bentincki), Silverside (Odontesthes regia), Common Hake
(Merluccius gayi), Inca Scad (Trachurus murphyi), Garfish (Scomberesox saurus scombroides) and South
American Pilchard (Sardinops sagax). Diet also includes squid: Dosidiscus gigas and Loligo gahi (Herling
et al. 2005).
Foraging bahaviour Humboldt Penguins are highly dependent on predictable food resources in coastal
waters near the nesting sites (Taylor et al. 2002). During the chick-rearing period, adults forage within
20-35 km around the colony, while incubating birds may reach up to 72 km from the colony (Culik and
Luna-Jorquera 1997a, Culik et al. 1998, Chiu et al. 2011). The species typically makes short, shallow
dives within 30 m of the surface (Taylor et al. 2002). At Isla Pan de Azúcar, Chile, it was found that
maximum dive depth was 53 m.
Population health Health surveys conducted on breeding adults from Punta San Juan showed that birds
are in good condition. Haematology, plasma chemistries, and plasma mineral levels varied between
years. Positive antibody titers for Chlamydophila psittaci (62%), avian adenovirus (7%), paramyxovirus-2
(7%) and Salmonella pullorum (7%) were found (Smith et al. 2008). Sallaberry-Pincheira et al. (2015)
detected Haemoproteus sp. in wild ranging Humboldt Penguins at Punta San Juan, but it is unclear
whether Haemoproteus sp. sporozoites are able to infect and develop in penguin cells (see Levin et al.
2013, Valkiunas et al. 2014) and, until this has been conclusively demonstrated, it seems unlikely that
these parasites pose a significant threat for their conservation (Vanstreels et al. 2016).
Pollution Humboldt Penguins at Punta San Juan were evaluated for 55 important trace elements,
including Hg [maximum Hg concentrations in serum (0.0056 ± 0.001 µg/g), whole blood (0.297 ± 0.0683
µg/g), and feathers (1.8 μg/g dw)], but at levels generally not considered to cause health impairment.
Plasma samples from the same animals were analysed for 31 polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) and 11
organochlorine (OC) residues using gas chromatography coupled to an ion trap mass spectrometer and
for 15 polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE) using gas chromatography high-resolution mass
spectrometry. The detection rate for PCBs was 69%, with congeners 105, 118, 180, and 153 most
commonly detected (Adkesson unpubl. data).
Systems: Terrestrial, Marine
Threats (see Appendix for additional information)
The Humboldt Current System has alternating blooms and depletions of productivity triggered by El
Niño-La Niña dynamics. During El Niño, prey availability is reduced to penguins (Culik et al. 2000, Taylor
et al. 2002), inducing nest abandonment and chick mortality (Paredes and Zavalaga 1998, Simeone et al.
2002). However, La Niña conditions improve food availability, producing higher breeding success and
chick survival (Simeone et al. 2002). Increased frequency and intensity of El Niño events will likely harm
the Humboldt Penguin by reducing its ability to recover fast enough, as has been observed in the
Galápagos Penguin Spheniscus mendiculus (Boersma 1998, Vargas et al. 2006). Flooding has been
recorded to cause species mortality and a loss of reproductive success in some areas of this species’s
range.
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The high number of artisanal gillnet fisheries operating within the species range is a considerable
concern for the species, and may be of greater impact than large-scale fisheries (Crawford et al. 2017).
Industrial fisheries in Peru and Chile exploit the main prey species of penguins (sardines and anchovies).
A study by Jahncke et al. (2004) demonstrated that the removal of forage fish is an important pressing
threat to several seabirds in the Humboldt Current Ecosystem, that may be hindering their ability to
recover to pre-industrial fisheries population levels. Gillnets from artisanal fisheries regularly entangle
and kill penguins both in Chile (Simeone et al. 1999, Wallace et al. 1999, Skewgar et al. 2009) and Peru
(Majluf et al. 2002, J. Alfaro-Shigueto pers. comm.), and penguins have been shown to be caught as
bycatch in large-scale trawl, porse-seine and long-line fisheries throughout their range (Crawford et al.
2017). Simeone et al. (1999) suggest that more penguins die in gill nets during winter, when birds are
away from the colonies. In Peru, illegal use of explosives by fishermen has caused penguin mortality (J.
Reyes pers. comm.); this also occurs in northern Chile, although it seems to be infrequent (CONAF 2016).
Introduced rats (House Rat Rattus rattus and Brown Rat R. norvegicus) predate unattended eggs at
several colonies in north and central Chile (Simeone and Luna-Jorquera 2012) and have also been
recorded killing chicks in Punta San Juan, Peru (S. Cárdenas-Alayza pers. obs.). Feral dogs Canis familiaris
have been reported to kill adults at Pájaro Niño Island in central Chile (Simeone and Bernal 2000) while
feral cats Felis catus have been observed on some islands with breeding colonies in Peru. Native Culpeo
Lycalopex culpeo have been noted to cause considerable mortality in coastal colonies in Peru, while gulls
and vultures are typical egg and chick predators (M. Cardeña pers. comm.).
Disturbance impacts may be locally significant for the species. Penguin colonies are frequently visited by
tourists and fishermen collecting seafood or seaweeds in northern Chile (Simeone and Schlatter 1998,
Ellenberg et al. 2006, CONAF 2016) and Peru. Simeone and Schlatter (1998) reported considerable
trampling of nests by unregulated tourists at Puñihuil Islands and by guano harvesters in Peru (P. Majluf
pers. comm.). As the species is extremely sensitive to human presence, breeding success is significantly
reduced at frequently visited sites (Ellenberg et al. 2006).
Historical declines resulted from over-exploitation of guano, which greatly reduced the availability and
quality of nesting habitat (Coker 1920, Murphy 1936). Removal of guano reduces the preferred substrate
used by penguins to dig burrows (Murphy 1936, Duffy et al. 1984, Paredes and Zavalaga 2001), but
guano miners also increase adult and egg mortality through direct harvest, trampling of nests, direct
disturbance to breeding sites and by the introduction of alien species such as dogs and rats (Duffy et al.
1984). The coastal and marine area around the major colonies in northern Chile (29-30°S) is currently
threatened by the construction of coal-fired power stations (Cárcamo et al. 2011) and large mining
proposals (E. Vilaplana in litt. 2018). An industrial mega-port has been approved in the bay close to
Punta San Juan, the largest colony for Peru (P. Majluf pers. comm.). In northern Chile, eggs are collected
for local consumption and birds are killed for use as fish and crab bait.
There is also the potential for oil spills affecting some colonies. In central Chile, two major oil spills
occurred in the period 2015-2016, threatening the colony at Cachagua, which contains 800 mature
individuals. Over the longer term, the reproductive success of oiled individuals is likely to be impaired
and impacts on the marine environment are likely to impact food resources in concert with climate
impacts.
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Conservation Actions (see Appendix for additional information)
Conservation Actions Underway
Colonies in Peru and Chile are monitored regularly. In January 2010, the Peruvian government
established the Guano System National Reserve (Decreto Supremo 024–2009-MINAM) (Ministerio de
Ambiente 2012, http://www.minam.gob.pe/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/decreto_supremo_0242009.pdf). This network of headlands, capes and islands harbours nesting sites of Humboldt Penguins
and protects major foraging areas around them. The San Fernando National Reserve (established in July
2011 by the Decreto Supremo 017–2011-MINAM) is also a major site for penguins. Monitoring and
removal of rodents has recently begun at Punta San Juan (Cárdenas-Alayza unpubl.). Recently, the
Chilean Forest Service eradicated rabbits from Isla Choros in northern Chile, and they have developed an
Action Plan (CONAF 2016) for the species aiming to improve its conservation in the country and
particularly within the protected area network. Currently, the National Zoo in Santiago (Chile) is
successfully developing an ex-situ programme by raising chicks from neglected eggs taken from wild
populations. Recently, the Shimonoseki Marine Science Museum (Japan) succeeded in artificially
inseminating female penguins from frozen sperm (K. Ueda pers. comm.).
Conservation Actions Proposed
Currently, population estimates for Peru and Chile are determined by different methods and this
prevents comparisons and estimates of the global population. Therefore, a consolidated census
methodology for both Peru and Chile should be established. Determine the optimum survey times and
methods for assessing the population size of the species in both countries (e.g. define whether censuses
of breeding or moulting birds [or both] should be conducted for the species). Quantify the impact of
identified threats on distribution, abundance, and breeding success. Identify and quantify the impacts of
climate change on population size, distribution, and breeding success. Determine basic life history
parameters at strategic colonies along the species's distribution, including juvenile dispersal and
survival, breeding success and population size. Identify critical areas for conservation, both inland
(breeding) and at sea (foraging), and monitor strategic colonies to detect changes in abundance and
how colonies behave during periods of food abundance and scarcity. Determine whether the
fluctuations in numbers observed during El Niño are caused by mortality, dispersion or a combination of
both. Generate relevant information for industrial fishery management and policy (define catch quotas
and fishery bans based on ecosystem parameters) and monitor targeted prey species. Generate a
baseline of health parameters across the species's distribution. Assess whether the current Marine
Protected Area (MPA) system effectively protects penguins, and establish further MPAs around strategic
colonies to secure feeding grounds of penguins, at least during the breeding season. At colonies where
MPAs already exist, enforcement should be coupled with management plans and measurable objectives,
so that conservation practitioners can monitor the efficiency of MPAs and adapt to changes as
necessary. It is urgent to reduce bycatch in gillnets along the entire distribution of the species. The
industrial anchovy fishery is a threat to Humboldt Penguins, so total allowable catches should be set
based on trophic and oceanographic models that include ecological parameters and a precautionary
approach, reducing fishing pressure during El Niño years. Implement a sustainable guano harvest
method in order to minimize disturbance at the breeding colonies and better preserve nesting habitat.
Continue eradication of invasive species, particularly rats. Develop educational programmes on fish and
seabird conservation for adults and children to better understand economic and conservation trades-
© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Spheniscus humboldti – published in 2018.
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offs with human well-being.
Credits
Assessor(s):
BirdLife International
Reviewer(s):
Hermes, C.
Contributor(s):
Daigre, M., Luna-Jorquera, G., Adkesson, M., Alfaro-Shigueto, J., Amaro, L.,
Bernal, M., Bussalleu, A., Cardeña, M., Colchao, P., Cárdenas, S., Figueroa, J.,
Flores, M., Garcia Borboroglu , P., Guillermo, E., Jaime, M., Knauf, G., Luyo, P.,
Majluf, P., McGill, P., Quispe, M., Reyes, J., Roca, M., Schneider, T., Simeone, A.,
Ueda, K., Valqui, T., Vilaplana, E. & Zavalaga, C.
Facilitators(s) and
Compiler(s):
Benstead, P., Butchart, S., Calvert, R., Capper, D., Clay, R.P., Cárdenas, S., Hatchett,
J., Lascelles, B., Martin, R., Moreno, R., Pearmain, L., Simeone, A.
© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Spheniscus humboldti – published in 2018.
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Citation
BirdLife International. 2018. Spheniscus humboldti. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2018:
e.T22697817A132605004. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T22697817A132605004.en
Disclaimer
To make use of this information, please check the Terms of Use.
© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Spheniscus humboldti – published in 2018.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T22697817A132605004.en
11
External Resources
For Images and External Links to Additional Information, please see the Red List website.
© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Spheniscus humboldti – published in 2018.
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12
Appendix
Habitats
(http://www.iucnredlist.org/technical-documents/classification-schemes)
Habitat
Season
Suitability
Major
Importance?
1. Forest -> 1.4. Forest - Temperate
Breeding
Marginal
-
8. Desert -> 8.3. Desert - Cold
Resident
Suitable
Yes
9. Marine Neritic -> 9.1. Marine Neritic - Pelagic
Nonbreeding
Suitable
Yes
9. Marine Neritic -> 9.10. Marine Neritic - Estuaries
Nonbreeding
Marginal
-
10. Marine Oceanic -> 10.1. Marine Oceanic - Epipelagic (0-200m)
Nonbreeding
Suitable
Yes
12. Marine Intertidal -> 12.1. Marine Intertidal - Rocky Shoreline
Breeding
Suitable
No
12. Marine Intertidal -> 12.2. Marine Intertidal - Sandy Shoreline and/or
Beaches, Sand Bars, Spits, Etc
Nonbreeding
Marginal
-
12. Marine Intertidal -> 12.3. Marine Intertidal - Shingle and/or Pebble
Shoreline and/or Beaches
Nonbreeding
Suitable
Yes
12. Marine Intertidal -> 12.6. Marine Intertidal - Tidepools
Nonbreeding
Marginal
-
13. Marine Coastal/Supratidal -> 13.1. Marine Coastal/Supratidal - Sea
Cliffs and Rocky Offshore Islands
Resident
Suitable
Yes
13. Marine Coastal/Supratidal -> 13.2. Marine Coastal/supratidal - Coastal
Caves/Karst
Resident
Marginal
-
15. Artificial/Aquatic & Marine -> 15.11. Artificial/Marine - Marine
Anthropogenic Structures
Resident
Marginal
-
Threats
(http://www.iucnredlist.org/technical-documents/classification-schemes)
Threat
Timing
Scope
Severity
Impact Score
11. Climate change & severe weather -> 11.1. Habitat
shifting & alteration
Ongoing
Majority (5090%)
Slow, significant
declines
Medium
impact: 6
Stresses:
1. Ecosystem stresses -> 1.2. Ecosystem degradation
1. Ecosystem stresses -> 1.3. Indirect ecosystem effects
2. Species Stresses -> 2.3. Indirect species effects ->
2.3.7. Reduced reproductive success
Ongoing
Minority (50%)
Stresses:
2. Species Stresses -> 2.1. Species mortality
2. Species Stresses -> 2.3. Indirect species effects ->
2.3.7. Reduced reproductive success
11. Climate change & severe weather -> 11.4. Storms
& flooding
© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Spheniscus humboldti – published in 2018.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T22697817A132605004.en
Causing/could
cause fluctuations
Low impact: 5
13
3. Energy production & mining -> 3.2. Mining &
quarrying
5. Biological resource use -> 5.1. Hunting & trapping
terrestrial animals -> 5.1.1. Intentional use (species is
the target)
5. Biological resource use -> 5.4. Fishing & harvesting
aquatic resources -> 5.4.3. Unintentional effects:
(subsistence/small scale) [harvest]
5. Biological resource use -> 5.4. Fishing & harvesting
aquatic resources -> 5.4.4. Unintentional effects:
(large scale) [harvest]
6. Human intrusions & disturbance -> 6.1.
Recreational activities
8. Invasive and other problematic species, genes &
diseases -> 8.1. Invasive non-native/alien
species/diseases -> 8.1.2. Named species (Felis catus)
8. Invasive and other problematic species, genes &
diseases -> 8.1. Invasive non-native/alien
species/diseases -> 8.1.2. Named species (Rattus
rattus)
8. Invasive and other problematic species, genes &
diseases -> 8.2. Problematic native species/diseases
-> 8.2.2. Named species (Lycalopex culpaeus)
9. Pollution -> 9.2. Industrial & military effluents ->
9.2.1. Oil spills
Ongoing
Minority (50%)
Slow, significant
declines
Stresses:
1. Ecosystem stresses -> 1.1. Ecosystem conversion
1. Ecosystem stresses -> 1.2. Ecosystem degradation
2. Species Stresses -> 2.2. Species disturbance
Ongoing
Minority (50%)
Stresses:
2. Species Stresses -> 2.1. Species mortality
Ongoing
Majority (5090%)
Stresses:
1. Ecosystem stresses -> 1.3. Indirect ecosystem effects
2. Species Stresses -> 2.1. Species mortality
Ongoing
Majority (5090%)
Stresses:
1. Ecosystem stresses -> 1.3. Indirect ecosystem effects
2. Species Stresses -> 2.1. Species mortality
Ongoing
Minority (50%)
Stresses:
2. Species Stresses -> 2.2. Species disturbance
Ongoing
Minority (50%)
Stresses:
2. Species Stresses -> 2.1. Species mortality
Ongoing
Minority (50%)
Stresses:
2. Species Stresses -> 2.3. Indirect species effects ->
2.3.7. Reduced reproductive success
Ongoing
Minority (50%)
Stresses:
2. Species Stresses -> 2.1. Species mortality
Ongoing
Minority (50%)
Stresses:
1. Ecosystem stresses -> 1.2. Ecosystem degradation
2. Species Stresses -> 2.1. Species mortality
2. Species Stresses -> 2.3. Indirect species effects ->
2.3.7. Reduced reproductive success
Slow, significant
declines
Slow, significant
declines
Negligible declines
Slow, significant
declines
Slow, significant
declines
Slow, significant
declines
Slow, significant
declines
Slow, significant
declines
Low impact: 5
Low impact: 5
Medium
impact: 6
Low impact: 5
Low impact: 5
Low impact: 5
Low impact: 5
Low impact: 5
Low impact: 5
Conservation Actions in Place
(http://www.iucnredlist.org/technical-documents/classification-schemes)
Conservation Actions in Place
In-Place Research, Monitoring and Planning
© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Spheniscus humboldti – published in 2018.
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14
Conservation Actions in Place
Action Recovery plan: No
Systematic monitoring scheme: Yes
In-Place Land/Water Protection and Management
Conservation sites identified: Yes, over part of range
Occur in at least one PA: Yes
Invasive species control or prevention: Yes
In-Place Species Management
Successfully reintroduced or introduced beningly: No
Subject to ex-situ conservation: Yes
In-Place Education
Subject to recent education and awareness programmes: No
Included in international legislation: Yes
Subject to any international management/trade controls: Yes
Conservation Actions Needed
(http://www.iucnredlist.org/technical-documents/classification-schemes)
Conservation Actions Needed
1. Land/water protection -> 1.1. Site/area protection
2. Land/water management -> 2.1. Site/area management
2. Land/water management -> 2.2. Invasive/problematic species control
3. Species management -> 3.1. Species management -> 3.1.1. Harvest management
4. Education & awareness -> 4.3. Awareness & communications
5. Law & policy -> 5.2. Policies and regulations
Research Needed
(http://www.iucnredlist.org/technical-documents/classification-schemes)
Research Needed
1. Research -> 1.2. Population size, distribution & trends
1. Research -> 1.3. Life history & ecology
1. Research -> 1.5. Threats
3. Monitoring -> 3.1. Population trends
© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Spheniscus humboldti – published in 2018.
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Research Needed
0. Root -> 4. Other
Additional Data Fields
Distribution
Continuing decline in area of occupancy (AOO): Unknown
Extreme fluctuations in area of occupancy (AOO): Unknown
Estimated extent of occurrence (EOO) (km²): 2230000
Continuing decline in extent of occurrence (EOO): Unknown
Extreme fluctuations in extent of occurrence (EOO): Unknown
Number of Locations: 20
Continuing decline in number of locations: No
Extreme fluctuations in the number of locations: No
Upper elevation limit (m): 80
Population
Number of mature individuals: 32000
Continuing decline of mature individuals: Yes
Extreme fluctuations: Yes
Population severely fragmented: No
No. of subpopulations: 2-100
Continuing decline in subpopulations: Yes
Extreme fluctuations in subpopulations: Yes
All individuals in one subpopulation: No
Habitats and Ecology
Continuing decline in area, extent and/or quality of habitat: Yes
Generation Length (years): 10.6
Movement patterns: Full Migrant
Congregatory: Congregatory (and dispersive)
© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Spheniscus humboldti – published in 2018.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T22697817A132605004.en
16
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Programme, the IUCN Species Survival Commission (SSC) and The IUCN Red List Partnership.
The IUCN Red List Partners are: Arizona State University; BirdLife International; Botanic Gardens
Conservation International; Conservation International; NatureServe; Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew;
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